Paleopathological

Paleopathology is the study of ancient diseases in humans and, less commonly, in other animals, through the analysis of preserved remains such as bones, teeth, mummies, and, occasionally, soft tissues. It aims to identify injuries, infections, nutritional deficiencies, degenerative disorders, congenital anomalies, and other health-related conditions in past populations.

Methods combine macroscopic examination of lesions with comparative anatomy and imaging techniques, including radiography and computed tomography. Researchers also use histology and increasingly biochemical approaches such as stable isotope analysis, ancient DNA, and proteomics to infer pathogens, diet, and health status, while accounting for preservation biases.

Paleopathology sheds light on historical health, disease patterns, and the evolution of pathogens. It contributes to understanding life expectancy, trauma prevalence, occupational or lifestyle risks, and dietary stress. Notable examples include evidence of tuberculosis, leprosy, and treponemal diseases, as well as lesions indicating nutritional deficiencies and degenerative joint disease.

Interpretations must consider taphonomic alteration, postmortem damage, and diagnostic uncertainty. Skeletal changes can be non-specific, and many conditions leave similar marks. Therefore, paleopathologists emphasize multiple lines of evidence and replication across samples and sites.

The field intersects archaeology, anthropology, biology, and history, and continues to evolve with advances in imaging, ancient biomolecules, and computational analytics, enabling more precise reconstructions of ancient health, disease dynamics, and their social and environmental contexts.