PVmodules

PV modules, commonly referred to as solar panels, are assemblies that convert sunlight into electricity. They comprise multiple solar cells connected in series and encapsulated between protective layers to form a single electrical unit suitable for outdoor use. The most common cell technologies are crystalline silicon (monocrystalline or polycrystalline) and thin-film varieties. A typical module includes front glass, an encapsulant layer, a backsheet, and a frame, usually aluminum, with bypass diodes to mitigate power loss from shading.

Electrical performance is described by the module’s rated power output (Pmax) and key points such as open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-circuit current (Isc), and maximum power point (Vmp, Imp). Measurements are specified under standard test conditions (STC: 1000 W/m2, 25°C, air mass 1.5). Real-world output varies with temperature, irradiance, angle of incidence, and shading. Temperature coefficients describe how voltage and power change with temperature.

Standards and testing for PV modules cover electrical, mechanical, and environmental performance. Common standards include IEC 61215 for crystalline silicon modules and IEC 61730 for safety. Manufacturers typically provide warranties on product quality (often 10–12 years) and performance (commonly 25 years, with a degradation rate of roughly 0.3–0.8% per year).

Application and integration involve connecting modules into arrays and systems, using inverters or optimized power electronics, and sometimes tracking mechanisms. Modules are used in grid-tied, off-grid, and building-integrated photovoltaic installations, offering decades of service with ongoing improvements in efficiency and durability.