Mughals

The Mughals were a Muslim ruling dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that controlled much of the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th century to the mid-19th century. They traced their lineage to Timur on the paternal line and Genghis Khan through marriage lines, and were founded by Babur, who established a durable state after defeating Ibrahim Lodhi at Panipat in 1526.

Under Babur's successors, especially Akbar, the empire expanded and consolidated. Akbar implemented a centralized administration and a policy of religious tolerance; he fostered arts and a synthesis of Persianate and Indian cultures. Jahangir and Shah Jahan presided over a flourishing court and architectural patronage, with landmarks such as Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal. Aurangzeb expanded to the Deccan and governed with a stricter orthodoxy, but the empire began facing increasing pressure from regional powers and incursions.

Culture and administration: The Mughal state featured a centralized bureaucracy and the mansabdari system, revenue reforms, and a rich court culture that blended Persian, Timurid, and Indian traditions. Persian was the language of administration; the arts flourished in painting, calligraphy, music, and architecture.

Decline and legacy: After Aurangzeb, the empire weakened due to succession conflicts, revolts, and external pressure. By the 18th century, political authority fragmented among regional powers, with the British gradually gaining control. The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was deposed in 1858, marking the end of the dynasty. The Mughal period left a lasting architectural and cultural legacy in South Asia.