MANPADS

MANPADS, or man-portable air-defense systems, are lightweight, shoulder-fired missiles designed for use by a single infantryman to defend against aircraft and helicopters at close to medium range. They are compact, require little support equipment, and are intended for rapid deployment in battlefield and security operations.

Most MANPADS use an infrared seeking element to home in on aircraft exhaust or other heat sources. Engagement ranges typically extend from several hundred meters up to several kilometers, with service ceilings around 3,000 to 5,000 meters depending on the model. Guidance and fuzing enable rapid targeting of low-flying aircraft, making them effective in ambush and defensive roles. Some later systems employ laser guidance or beam-riding concepts to counter certain countermeasures.

Familiar examples include the United States’ FIM-92 Stinger, the Soviet-era Strela-2 and Strela-3 (Igla family), and the newer Igla-S; Western and European designs such as the Mistral and RBS 70 also populate the category. Over the decades, MANPADS have significantly influenced air operations and security planning due to their portability and potential to suppress or deny airspace in contested environments.

Countermeasures and vulnerabilities include infrared countermeasures such as flares, on-board electronics to resist some jamming, and aircraft-mounted directed infrared countermeasures, as well as tactical maneuvers to reduce hit probability. The proliferation risk has driven international attention and regulatory developments aimed at preventing illicit transfer and use by non-state actors.

Regulation and controls: MANPADS are subject to national export rules and international regimes that seek to limit their proliferation. Many governments require end-user certificates and restrict sales to military or allied governments. Aviation security guidance emphasizes protective measures for aircraft operating in or near conflict zones.