Lumières

Lumières, commonly known in English as the Enlightenment, was an 18th-century intellectual and cultural movement in Europe that emphasized reason, science, and inquiry as foundations for knowledge and governance. Emerging in the wake of the scientific revolution, it sought to replace superstition and arbitrary authority with critical thought, evidence, and universal rights. The movement flourished in cosmopolitan centers such as Paris, London, Edinburgh, and Berlin, and spread through salons, scholarly societies, newspapers, and the burgeoning printed encyclopedia.

Central to the Lumières were ideals of rational inquiry, secularism, religious toleration, and progress. Philosophes argued that human affairs could improve through reform in politics, education, law, and science. They promoted the social use of reason for public life, including the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, and the rule of law. A landmark project, the Encyclopédie edited by Diderot and d'Alembert (1745–1772), embodied and disseminated these ideas.

Prominent figures included Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Diderot in France; with British thinkers such as Newton and Locke contributing to natural philosophy and political theory. The movement influenced political thought and institutions, contributing to the development of liberal democracies, constitutional government, and human-rights discourse. Its impact extended to educational reforms, science policy, and attitudes toward religion and superstition.

The Lumières faced critique for alleged Eurocentrism and a limited inclusion of women and colonized peoples. The late 18th century saw stylistic and philosophical shifts that contributed to Romantic reactions, but the era’s ideas continued to shape modern secular and pluralist thought.