Khazar

Khazar refers to the Khazars, a semi-nomadic Turkic people who founded the Khazar Khaganate, a major political entity in the Pontic-Caspian steppe from about the 7th to the 10th century. Their heartland lay around the Volga region near the Caspian Sea, with important centers at Itil near the Volga delta and Sarkel; their realm extended north to the Don and east toward the Caucasus.

The Khaganate was a loose federation of tribes ruled by a sacral Khagan and a powerful military-administrative elite. It coordinated defense, taxation, and commerce, and controlled key trade routes linking Byzantium, the Islamic world, and the Eurasian steppe. The population was diverse, including Turkic-speaking peoples, Slavs, Armenians, Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The state was known for relatively tolerant religious policies and for serving as a political and commercial bridge between various civilizations.

Judaism and religious orientation: In the 8th–9th centuries, some sources indicate that the Khazar ruling class converted to Judaism, though the extent of conversion among the general population is uncertain. The evidence is fragmentary, and historians debate whether Judaism became a widespread or official faith within the state.

Decline and disappearance: From the 960s to the 970s, Khazaria declined under pressure from Sviatoslav I of Kiev and other powers, and by the end of the 10th century the Khaganate had largely ceased to exist, with its territories absorbed by the Rus and neighboring states.

Legacy: The Khazars influenced regional trade and cultural exchange across the Volga-Caspian sphere. Modern discussions, including the Khazar hypothesis about Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry, remain controversial and are not supported by a consensus of genetic or historical evidence.