Hedonism

Hedonism is a family of philosophical doctrines that identify pleasure as the highest intrinsic good and the proper aim of life. In ethical hedonism, actions are judged right to the extent that they maximize pleasure and minimize pain. In psychological hedonism, it is said that people are motivated primarily by the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of discomfort. Some formulations distinguish among different kinds or qualities of pleasure and propose hierarchies of value.

Origins and schools: The term comes from the Greek hēdonē, or pleasure. In ancient Greece, the Cyrenaics, led by Aristippus, emphasized immediate physical pleasure and status-driven indulgence. The Epicurean school, by contrast, taught that a flourishing life comes from moderating desires, cultivating simple pleasures, and achieving mental tranquility (ataraxia) by avoiding pain.

Influence and variants: In modern moral philosophy, hedonistic ideas contributed to utilitarianism, especially the emphasis on maximizing well-being. Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism treats pleasure and pain as the ultimate measures of value, while John Stuart Mill drew a distinction between higher and lower pleasures. Some forms of ethical hedonism are described as hedonic utilitarianism, which grounds moral evaluation in the balance of pleasure over pain for all affected.

Criticisms: Critics contend that pleasures vary in quality and that happiness involves more than momentary sensations, including virtue, meaning, and social bonds. It is also debated whether pleasure alone can ground morality, and whether pursuing pleasure can properly account for long-term well-being or justice.

See also: utilitarianism; epicureanism; Cyrenaics; philosophy of happiness.