Coniferophyta

Coniferophyta, commonly referred to as conifers, is a division of gymnosperms that comprises cone-bearing evergreen trees and shrubs. It includes about 630 living species distributed among several families, such as Pinaceae (pines, spruces, firs, larches), Cupressaceae (cypresses, junipers, redwoods), Araucariaceae (monkey puzzle, bunya), Podocarpaceae, and Taxaceae (yews).

Conifers are characterized by mostly needle- or scale-like leaves with a thick cuticle and recessed stomata; they produce wood mainly of tracheids and have resin canals. Most species are evergreen, retaining foliage year-round, with leaves adapted to dry, cold conditions. The sporophyte is the dominant life stage.

Reproduction occurs in cones: male cones release pollen that is carried by wind to female cones, where fertilization produces seeds. Seeds are often winged for wind dispersal. Many conifers are monoecious, though some species are dioecious.

Distribution and ecology: Conifers are predominant in boreal forests (taiga) and in temperate mountain and coastal regions. They are adapted to cold winters and, in many species, dry summers. They play essential roles in ecosystems, provide timber and resin, and are frequently used as ornamentals.

Evolution and human use: Conifers have a long fossil record dating back to the late Paleozoic, with major diversification in the Mesozoic. They continue to be economically important for timber, paper, resins, and as Christmas trees. Some species face threats from habitat loss, fire, pests, and climate change.