Confundere

Confundere is a Latin verb of the third conjugation meaning to pour together, to mix, or, figuratively, to confound or confuse. It is used both in literal contexts (mixing substances) and in figurative ones (confusing the mind, confusing enemies, or defeating in battle). The standard principal parts are confundo, confundere, confudi, confusum. This allows a range of forms in tense and voice, with typical present forms such as confundo, confundis, confundit, and imperfect and perfect tenses like confundebam and confudi.

Etymology and morphology: the word is composed of the prefix com- (a form of con- meaning together) and the verb fundere (to pour, to strike, to cast). Thus the literal sense is “to pour together.” The prefix can appear as con- or com- depending on phonetic context, giving the modern Latin form confundere. The passive participle is confusus, and the supine is confusum.

Meanings and usage: in classical Latin, confundere commonly denotes mixing or combining things physically, as in placing substances together. In figurative usage, it means to confuse, perplex, or confound someone’s thoughts or plans. It can also convey the sense of defeating or overthrowing an opponent by throwing them into confusion (e.g., confundere hostes). The verb appears with direct objects in the sense of mixing or confusing things, and it can take indirect expressions such as in animos or in hostes to indicate the target of confusion or overthrow.

Derivatives and English usage: confundere gives the English verb confound and related nouns such as confusion and confounding. In English, confound retains senses of both “to confuse” and “to defeat or thwart.” The Latin verb appears in classical authors across various genres, from rhetorical to military contexts.

Overall, confundere operates with a core meaning of bringing things together or throwing the mind into confusion, with a broad range of figurative applications in Latin literature.