Confucius

Confucius, also known as Kongzi, was a Chinese philosopher and educator who lived in the state of Lu during the late Spring and Autumn period. Traditionally dated to 551–479 BCE, his life details are reconstructed from later sources. He traveled to advise rulers and taught students, presenting a program for restoring social order through virtuous conduct rather than through force or coercion. He is regarded as the central figure in Confucianism, and not the founder of a new religion.

Core concepts include ren (humaneness or benevolence), li (ritual propriety and social norms), xiao (filial piety), and junzi (the “gentleman” or morally superior person). He emphasized reciprocal duties in the five relationships: ruler–subject, father–son, husband–wife, older sibling–younger, and friend–friend. Governance should be by virtue and moral example, with merit-based appointment. Education was essential and available to all who demonstrated ability, regardless of birth.

His teachings are primarily known through the Analects, a collection of his sayings and dialogues compiled by followers. Other classical texts also became associated with the tradition. Confucianism influenced later Chinese dynasties, particularly during the Han, where it shaped civil service exams and state ideology. Its reach extended to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and it continues to inform discussions of ethics, family life, and governance in East Asia and beyond.