Conductive

Conductive describes a material's ability to permit the flow of electric charge or heat. In everyday usage it most often refers to electrical conduction, but thermal conduction is also described as conductive.

Electrical conduction arises from charge carriers: free electrons in metals, ions in electrolytes, and electrons and holes in semiconductors. Conductivity is measured in siemens per meter (S/m). Materials with high electrical conductivity include copper, silver, and aluminum; insulators such as glass or certain plastics have very low conductivity. The distinction among conductors, semiconductors, and insulators is central to electronics, with conductivity varying widely across materials and dependent on temperature, impurities, and structure.

Thermal conduction occurs mainly through lattice vibrations (phonons) and, in metals, free electrons. Thermal conductivity is expressed in watts per meter-kelvin (W/m·K). Materials with high thermal conductivity, such as copper, aluminum, and diamond, transfer heat efficiently; insulators like air, wood, and many plastics slow heat flow. Some materials show anisotropic conduction, where heat transfer differs by direction.

Materials can be engineered for conductive properties. Conductive polymers and carbon-based materials (graphite, carbon nanotubes) enable flexible or lightweight electronics. Conductive inks and fabrics support printed circuits and smart textiles. Superconductors exhibit zero electrical resistance below a critical temperature, enabling highly efficient power transmission in specialized applications.

Applications of conductive properties span electrical wiring, electronic components, heat exchangers, sensing devices, and energy storage systems. Design considerations include choosing appropriate conductivity, managing contact resistance, ensuring durability, and mitigating unwanted leakage or interference.