Civilization

Civilization is a complex human society characterized by urban settlements, social stratification, centralized political authority, economic specialization, organized religion, and symbolic systems such as writing. It typically emerges when agricultural surplus supports non-farm labor, enabling cities, governance, and long-distance exchange. Civilizations are marked by durable institutions such as law, education, taxation, and infrastructure, and by monumental architecture, art, science, and record-keeping.

Most civilizations develop in river basins or fertile regions, where irrigation and trade enable population growth. Early civilizations include Mesopotamia, Nile Valley, Indus Valley, and Huang He; independent centers also arose in Mesoamerica and the Andes. Over time, some civilizations expand through conquest or trade, integrate diverse groups, and produce complex economies and bureaucratic administrations.

Modern uses of the term vary; some scholars emphasize cultural and technological complexity rather than political form. The concept is contested and not universal: several societies maintain high levels of organizational complexity without writing systems, and some civilizations decline while others rise. Critics point to Eurocentric bias and stress that nonstate actors, social networks, and ecological factors shape civilizational development.

Today, civilizations are deeply interconnected through globalization, technology, and shared institutions, while facing challenges such as urban planning, resource management, inequality, and cultural preservation.