Astrogeological

Astrogeological, or astrogeology, is the study of the geology of celestial bodies beyond Earth. It encompasses the analysis of surfaces, interiors, and geological histories of planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and dwarf planets, as well as the processes that shape them, including volcanism, impact cratering, tectonics, erosion, and space weathering. The field seeks to understand how planetary bodies form, evolve, and interact within the solar system.

Researchers in astrogeology employ a range of methods. Remote sensing and orbital data provide maps of topography, composition, and gravity; spectroscopy reveals mineralogical makeup; radar helps probe subsurface structures. In situ exploration by landers and rovers offers ground truth measurements of rocks, soils, and seismic activity. Returned samples and careful analysis of meteorites further illuminate planetary histories. Techniques such as crater counting, stratigraphic analysis, and geochronology are used to establish relative and, where possible, absolute timelines for geological processes on other worlds.

The field has its roots in classical geology and astronomy and gained momentum with spaceflight programs in the mid‑twentieth century. Lunar samples from Apollo, early Mars missions, and subsequent Venus, outer-planet, and asteroid missions expanded knowledge, followed by ongoing robotic exploration and, in some programs, planned human or sample-return missions. Astrogeology is closely related to planetary geology and comparative planetology, emphasizing how processes differ across bodies and what those differences reveal about solar system formation and evolution.

Applications include mission planning, landing-site selection, hazard assessment, and resource prospecting, as well as advancing fundamental science about planetary formation, surface evolution, and the history of the solar system.