Alkoller

Alcohols are a broad class of organic compounds that contain one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to carbon atoms. They are often described as alkyl alcohols, with the general formula R-OH, where R represents an alkyl group. Alcohols are commonly categorized by the degree of substitution at the carbon bearing the hydroxyl group: primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°).

Physically, alcohols are polar and capable of hydrogen bonding, which gives them higher boiling points than alkanes of similar molecular weight. Short-chain alcohols such as methanol and ethanol are miscible with water, while longer-chain members have limited water solubility. They can act as both solvents and reactive building blocks in organic synthesis.

Chemically, alcohols undergo a range of reactions. Primary and secondary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes and then to carboxylic acids (primary), or to ketones (secondary); tertiary alcohols resist oxidation. Alcohols readily form esters via reactions with carboxylic acids or their derivatives, and can dehydrate to give alkenes in acid-catalyzed conditions. They also form ethers by dehydration of two alcohol molecules under certain conditions.

Uses and production: Ethanol is a common beverage and industrial solvent and a widely used biofuel. Alcohols are produced commercially by catalytic hydration of alkenes (e.g., ethene to ethanol) or by fermentation of sugars, while methanol is synthesized from synthesis gas. Safety: alcohols are generally flammable; methanol is highly toxic; others can irritate or cause systemic effects at high exposure.