1790s

The 1790s denote the decade from 1790 to 1799, a period of radical political change, reform movements, and shifting global power. It saw the consolidation of new republics in the Americas, ongoing wars in Europe, and the emergence of modern nation‑state structures. The decade set the stage for major upheavals and geopolitical realignments that influenced the early 19th century.

France remained at the center of upheaval. After the Revolution began in 1789, the 1790s saw the abolition of the monarchy, the rise and fall of the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), and the Thermidorian Reaction. The Directory governed 1795–1799, while wars with coalitions reshaped Europe. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in the coup of 18 Brumaire, ending the decade and inaugurating the Napoleonic era.

In the United States, the new constitutional order was solidified. The Bill of Rights was ratified in 1791; the Whiskey Rebellion tested federal authority in 1794; and the Jay Treaty (1794) and Pinckney Treaty (1795) defined borders and trade relations. The XYZ Affair (1797–1798) strained ties with France and contributed to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. Washington died in 1799, and John Adams became president. The era also featured the ongoing Haitian Revolution (begun 1791) and Latin American ferment that would influence later independence movements.

Technological and social changes accompanied political developments. The cotton gin, invented in 1793, accelerated American cotton production, reinforcing slavery's economic importance. Abolitionist currents gained momentum in parts of Europe; Denmark-Norway passed a law to abolish the transatlantic slave trade in 1792 (effective 1803).

By its end, the 1790s reshaped politics, law, and international relations, laying groundwork for the Napoleonic era, U.S. federal authority, and later movements for abolition and republican governance.