xenoestrogens

Xenoestrogens are a class of xenohormones—synthetic or natural chemical compounds that imitate the action or effects of estrogens in animals and humans. They can bind to estrogen receptors (ERα and ERβ) or influence estrogen synthesis, metabolism, or transport. Xenoestrogens range from industrial chemicals (such as bisphenol A and its analogs, phthalates, polychlorinated biphenyls), to pesticides (e.g., DDT and its metabolites), to some naturally occurring plant or fungal compounds and cosmetics additives. Their estrogenic activity varies from weak to potent and can be agonistic or antagonistic, sometimes exhibiting non-monotonic dose responses where effects do not increase predictably with dose.

Exposure occurs via ingestion of contaminated food and water, inhalation of dust or aerosols, and dermal contact with consumer products. Because many xenoestrogens persist and bioaccumulate, body burdens can reflect long-term exposure. In humans and wildlife, xenoestrogens are studied as potential endocrine disruptors, with concerns about effects on reproductive development, puberty timing, fertility, fetal growth, and hormone-sensitive cancers. Vulnerable populations include fetuses and young children, where exposure can program development.

Regulatory responses vary by country but include restrictions on certain compounds, safety evaluations, and labeling. Risk assessment balances potency, exposure level, and timing. Some debates consider cumulative and mixture effects, as people are exposed to multiple xenoestrogens simultaneously. Not all estrogenic effects are harmful, and context, dose, and exposure route shape outcomes.