surgeons

Surgeons are physicians who specialize in operative procedures to diagnose, treat, or prevent disease and injury. They perform operations across a wide range of settings, including hospitals, clinics, and teaching institutions, often in collaboration with anesthesiologists, nurses, and other specialists.

Training typically begins with earning a medical degree, followed by a residency in surgery and, for many, a fellowship in a subspecialty. Certification requirements vary by country but commonly include examinations and ongoing continuing medical education to maintain competence.

Common surgical subspecialties include general surgery, orthopedic, neurosurgery, cardiovascular, plastic and reconstructive, urology, otolaryngology (ear, nose and throat), pediatric surgery, transplant surgery, thoracic, vascular, and ophthalmic surgery. Surgeons may focus on preoperative assessment, operative planning, the procedure itself, and postoperative care, working within multidisciplinary teams to optimize outcomes.

Techniques range from open operations to minimally invasive approaches such as laparoscopy and robotic-assisted surgery, as well as endoscopic procedures. Advances in anesthesia, imaging, and perioperative care have shaped modern surgical practice, improving precision and safety.

Ethical practice emphasizes informed consent, patient safety, and quality assurance. The specialty carries risks including infection, bleeding, anesthesia complications, and organ or nerve injury. The history of surgery extends from ancient techniques to modern subspecialization, reflecting ongoing improvements in techniques, devices, and evidence-based care.