sexdependent

Sex-dependent describes traits, responses, or effects that differ according to biological sex. When an outcome is sex-dependent, there is an interaction between sex and the variable of interest, meaning the effect varies between males and females. This term does not necessarily imply that the underlying gene resides on a sex chromosome; rather, sex hormones, chromosomal context, and other sex-specific factors influence the result.

Sex-dependent is distinct from sex-linked and sex-specific. Sex-linked refers specifically to genes on sex chromosomes that produce different phenotypes due to chromosomal inheritance. Sex-specific typically means the effect occurs only in one sex. In contrast, a sex-dependent effect can occur in both sexes but with different magnitudes or directions, or may be present only under certain conditions in one sex.

Examples span multiple fields. In medicine and pharmacology, drug metabolism, efficacy, or adverse effects can be sex-dependent, leading to sex-specific dosing considerations. In immunology, autoimmune conditions are more common in females, while vaccine responses can differ by sex. Neurological and psychiatric outcomes, pain sensitivity, and cardiovascular risk profiles also show sex-dependent patterns.

Mechanisms underlying sex dependence include hormonal influences (estrogen, testosterone), differences in sex chromosome gene expression, epigenetic regulation, and interactions with the microbiome. Researchers assess sex-dependent effects by testing for statistical interactions between sex and the variable of interest and by reporting sex-stratified results.

In research practice, recognizing sex as a biological variable helps ensure findings are applicable to both sexes and reduces bias in interpretation.