senate

A senate is the upper chamber in many national legislatures. In most modern bicameral systems, the senate provides representation distinct from the directly elected lower house, often balancing regional, state, or expert interests. The concept traces back to ancient Rome, with modern forms arising in Europe and the Americas. Membership and powers vary widely, and senators are typically chosen by election, appointment, or a mix, often serving longer terms than lower-house members.

Functions and powers vary by constitution but common roles include reviewing and amending legislation, debating policy, and providing regional or technical representation. Depending on design, a senate may be able to approve or veto laws, delay or block legislation, and require consent for budgets, treaties, or executive appointments. Some senates conduct investigations, oversee government activity, or try officials in impeachment proceedings. Systems differ on whether money bills can originate in the senate or must come from the lower house.

Examples illustrate the diversity of the institution. The United States Senate comprises 100 members elected to six-year terms and has exclusive authority to confirm presidential appointments, ratify treaties, and serve as the jury in impeachment trials. The Canadian Senate has about 105 seats appointed on the prime minister’s advice, representing regions and groups; it reviews legislation and can delay non-financial bills. The Australian Senate consists of 76 members elected for six years with state-based representation and can block most legislation. Other nations maintain senates with varying powers, including Ireland’s Seanad Éireann, where the body is partly elected and partly appointed, serving as a consultative chamber alongside the lower house.