runen

Runen, also known as runes, are letters used in the runic alphabets created by Germanic-speaking peoples. They were carved on wood, stone, metal, and bone and are attested from roughly the 2nd century CE into the Middle Ages. Runen served both as a writing system and as carriers of symbolic or magical meaning in various contexts. Inscriptions appear on weapons, everyday objects, and especially on runestones raised for commemorative or ceremonial purposes.

Three major families are usually distinguished. The Elder Futhark, with 24 runes, was used from about the 2nd to the 8th centuries and represents the oldest form of the runic tradition. The Younger Futhark, a reduced inventory of 16 runes, emerged in Scandinavia in the 9th century and persisted into the late medieval period. The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, an expanded variant used in parts of Britain from the 5th to the 11th centuries, developed locally with dozens of signs over time.

Linguistically, runen reflect early Germanic languages and provide evidence for phonology and borrowing patterns of the period. Archaeological finds, such as runestones across Scandinavia and northern Britain, illustrate ceremonial, commemorative, and everyday uses. In Norse myth and later literature, runes are often depicted as possessing magical properties, though the historical record for such practices is varied and debated.

In modern times, runen are studied under the field of runology, focusing on inscriptions and historical usage. They have also influenced popular culture, modern neopaganism, and various artistic and literary works. Contemporary rune readings, when practiced, rely on interpretive systems distinct from historical usage.