Futhark

Futhark is the term used for the runic alphabets employed by Germanic-speaking peoples of northern Europe during the early medieval period. The name comes from the first six runes of the traditional order: Fehu, Uruz, Thurisaz, Ansuz, Raidho, Kaunan. In scholarly usage, futhark can refer to any of the major runic systems, particularly the Elder Futhark, the Younger Futhark, and the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc.

There are three principal variants. The Elder Futhark has 24 runes and was used roughly from the 2nd to the 8th centuries. The Younger Futhark has 16 runes and circulated in Scandinavia from the 9th century onward. The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc expanded the inventory to about 28–33 runes and was used in England from the 5th to the 11th centuries.

Runic inscriptions were carved on wood, stone, and metal for purposes such as commemorations, ownership marks, and ritual objects. Each rune has a name and a phonetic value, and the runic order reflects historical phonology and symbolic associations. The scripts are angular to facilitate carving, and most inscriptions were written left to right, though some traditions used right-to-left or boustrophedon directions.

Origins and decline: The futharks arose in the late Iron Age and spread across northern Europe. With Christianization, Latin script largely supplanted runes for everyday writing, though inscriptions continued in some regions into the medieval period.

In modern times, futhark is studied by linguists and archaeologists and has found use in popular culture, a variety of neo-pagan practices, and decorative or symbolic contexts.