reformaation

Reformaation, often called the Reformation in English, was a major 16th-century religious reform movement that began in Europe and led to the creation of Protestant churches as well as broad changes within the Catholic Church. It emerged from criticisms of ecclesiastical corruption, the sale of indulgences, and calls to return to scripture and foundational theological principles. The movement was aided by humanist scholarship and the spread of printed literature.

Martin Luther's ideas crystallized in 1517 when he published the Ninety-Five Theses, challenging abuses and the authority of the pope. Luther's later writings argued for justification by faith and for the primacy of Scripture. Other reformers, including Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich, John Calvin in Geneva, and later figures in England and Scotland, developed distinct theologies and church structures. The reform spread quickly to German lands, Scandinavia, the Low Countries, and parts of France and Switzerland.

In response, the Catholic Church initiated the Counter-Reformation, culminating in the Council of Trent (1545–63) and reforms within Catholic practice, education, and missionary activity. The English Reformation, under Henry VIII and his successors, created the Church of England, which separated from Rome but retained many Catholic forms.

The Reformaation reshaped the religious map of Europe, leading to the coexistence of Catholic and various Protestant traditions. It altered politics, education, and culture and contributed to religious wars and social change. The settlement of religious boundaries through treaties such as the Peace of Augsburg (1555) and the later Peace of Westphalia (1648) helped establish a framework for confessional pluralism in Europe.