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P-values are a statistical measure used to determine the significance of results in hypothesis testing. They represent the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the observed data, assuming that the null hypothesis is true. A low p-value (typically ≤ 0.05) indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis, suggesting that the observed data is unlikely to have occurred by chance. Conversely, a high p-value suggests that the observed data is consistent with the null hypothesis.
P-values are widely used in various fields, including medicine, psychology, and social sciences, to assess the
Despite these criticisms, p-values remain an essential tool in statistical analysis. They provide a standardized way