pardons

Pardons are a form of clemency granted by a competent authority, typically a head of state or government, to forgive a person for a criminal offense. A pardon may remove or reduce penalties, restore civil rights, and sometimes expunge criminal records, depending on the jurisdiction. A pardon does not necessarily declare the person innocent, and it is distinct from a conviction reversal or acquittal. Pardons exist alongside other clemency tools such as reprieves (temporary delay of punishment) and amnesties (for groups).

Types include a full pardon, which forgives the offense and lifts penalties; conditional or discretionary pardons may require compliance with terms; and commutations that reduce a sentence without erasing the conviction. Amnesty generally refers to forgiveness for a class of offenses, often as part of a broader political settlement. Pardons may also restore civil rights such as voting or eligibility for office, though restoration varies by jurisdiction and may require separate action.

Process: in many countries, the executive branch grants pardons after a petition or application, sometimes following recommendation from a clemency or pardon board, a review of conduct, and time since the offense. The decision is typically final and not subject to ordinary appeals, though it can be challenged in some cases or reversed by legislation or a later pardon. Pardons are usually prospective in effect for the offender's future rights and obligations.

Effects and limitations: Pardons remove or mitigate penalties and disabilities but rarely nullify all consequences of a conviction, such as certain civil or professional liabilities. They do not establish innocence in a court of law. In constitutional terms, the scope of pardon power and its limits vary by country, but most systems place the power in a chief executive or monarch with discretionary authority over the criminal justice system.