neuroendocrino

Neuroendocrino, or neuroendocrine, refers to cells or systems that integrate the nervous and endocrine branches of physiology. Neuroendocrine cells are specialized units that receive neuronal input and release hormones or neuropeptides directly into the bloodstream, acting at the interface between the nervous and endocrine systems.

The neuroendocrine system includes hypothalamic neurons and the pituitary, the adrenal medulla, as well as a dispersed network of neuroendocrine cells in organs such as the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and lungs. These cells form both discrete glands and diffuse cellular systems that coordinate hormonal signals with neural activity.

Neuroendocrine signaling regulates metabolism, growth, reproduction, stress response, digestion, and immune function, using hormones alongside neural inputs to coordinate short-term and long-term physiological processes. The system can act quickly through neurohormones as well as more slowly through hormonal cascades.

Neuroendocrine tumors arise from these cells and can be functioning, secreting hormones, or non-functioning. Common presentations include carcinoid syndrome, insulinomas, gastrinomas, or other hormone-related effects, while many tumors are non-functioning. Diagnosis relies on biomarkers such as chromogranin A, imaging with CT or MRI, and targeted somatostatin receptor imaging (for example Ga-68 DOTATATE PET/CT).

Treatment is individualized and may include surgical resection for localized disease, somatostatin analogs to control symptoms, targeted therapies (everolimus, sunitinib), and peptide receptor radionuclide therapy. The prognosis depends on tumor type, grade, stage, and response to therapy.