monads

Monads are an abstraction that originates in category theory and has become a foundational pattern in functional programming. In category theory, a monad consists of a type constructor M together with two natural transformations: a unit (often called return or eta) that embeds a value into the monadic context, and a multiplication (often called join or mu) that flattens nested monadic values. These must satisfy associativity and unit laws, ensuring that composing monadic operations behaves predictably. In programming, monads provide a framework to model computations that carry a context, such as possible failure, state, or I/O, by wrapping values in a computational container.

A programming-language monad is defined by a type constructor M and two operations: return (or pure) of type a → M a, and bind (>>=) of type M a → (a → M b) → M b. Some languages also expose join as a primitive. The monad laws—left identity, right identity, and associativity—guarantee that chaining computations with bind yields consistent results, regardless of how the sequence of operations is grouped.

Common monad instances include Maybe (Option), List, IO, State, and Either (Result). The Maybe monad propagates failure by short-circuiting when a value is absent. The List monad represents nondeterministic computations by combining multiple possibilities. The IO monad sequences input and output actions. The State monad threads a mutable-like state through a chain of computations. The Either monad carries error information and can short-circuit on failure.

In summary, a monad provides a uniform pattern for composing effectful operations, enabling modular and expressive code while preserving mathematical structure.