molekules

Molekules are the basic units of chemical substances that define their composition and properties. They are groups of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds and behave as a single unit in reactions. Molekules can be composed of identical atoms, such as O2 or N2, or of different elements, such as H2O, CO2, or CH4.

Most molekules are held together by covalent bonds formed by sharing electron pairs. In some cases, molecules are stabilized by ionic interactions, though salts are often described as ionic compounds rather than discrete molecules. Intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, and van der Waals forces influence melting and boiling points, solubility, and reactivity.

Molecular geometry arises from the arrangement of atoms around central atoms and determines the overall shape of the molecule. Common shapes include linear, bent, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral. The geometry and bond strengths influence properties such as polarity, reactivity, and physical state.

Molekule size and mass vary widely. Typical molecular dimensions range from about 0.1 to a few nanometers, and molecular weights span from tens to several thousand atomic mass units. By definition, one mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of molekules (approximately 6.022 x 10^23).

Analytical methods are used to study molekules, including X-ray crystallography for precise structure, infrared and Raman spectroscopy for bond vibrations, nuclear magnetic resonance for internal architecture, and mass spectrometry for mass and composition.

Molekules are central to chemistry, biology, and materials science, governing everything from metabolic pathways to polymers and nanomaterials.