masculinities

Masculinities refers to the array of practices, performances, and meanings attributed to being male within a given culture and historical period. It treats masculinity as a social construct rather than a fixed trait, produced and reinforced through family, education, media, religion, and institutions. The study of masculinities analyzes how gender identities are learned, negotiated, and challenged, and how power relations shape what counts as masculine.

Key concepts include hegemonic masculinity, the culturally idealized form that sustains male dominance and patriarchy; complicit masculinity, which benefits from that system without directly resisting it; and subordinate or marginalized masculinities, which arise from racialized, classed, or sexualized exclusions. Researchers also examine how different groups develop distinct masculinities—such as those in Black, Latino, or LGBTQ+ communities—and how trans and nonbinary experiences intersect with conventional categories of masculinity without collapsing gender diversity into a single norm.

Origins and development: the framework emerged in sociology and gender studies in the late 20th century, notably through the work of R. W. Connell, who emphasized the relational and hierarchical nature of masculinities. Subsequent scholarship has broadened the analysis to include intersectionality, media representations, and global variations, while some critics warn against essentializing masculinities or reifying gender binaries.

Implications and applications: research on masculinities informs education, health, and policy, including campaigns to reduce violence and to promote healthier, more diverse expressions of manhood. Positive examples emphasize emotional openness, caregiving, nonviolence, and equitable behavior, while acknowledging ongoing challenges posed by rigid norms in many settings.