ledematen

Ledematen are paired appendages that extend from the trunk of an animal and are used for locomotion, manipulation, and interaction with the environment. In humans, the term most commonly refers to the four limbs: two upper limbs (arms) and two lower limbs (legs).

Anatomically, the upper limb includes the shoulder girdle (clavicle and scapula), the arm (humerus), the forearm (radius and ulna), and the hand (carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges). The lower limb includes the pelvic girdle attaching to the trunk, the thigh (femur), the leg (tibia and fibula), and the foot (tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges). Joints such as the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle provide a wide range of movement, while muscles on the front and back produce flexion, extension, rotation, abduction, and adduction.

Functionally, the limbs support body weight, enable locomotion and balance, and allow precise manipulation of objects. Sensory information from the skin, joints, and muscles is integrated with motor commands to coordinate movement.

Developmentally, limbs arise from limb buds in the embryo and are shaped by signaling pathways that regulate bone, muscle, and nerve formation. Variation is common, including differences in limb length, congenital limb deficiencies, and polydactyly. Injuries such as fractures or dislocations are frequent in clinical practice, and severe cases may require surgery or prosthetic rehabilitation.

From an evolutionary perspective, limbs evolved from paired fins of early vertebrates and diversified to serve different functions across species, ranging from locomotion to manipulation and, in some animals, flight.