hydrolysi

Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which a molecule reacts with water and splits into two or more smaller units. In the typical process, a water molecule donates a hydrogen atom to one fragment and a hydroxyl group to the other, though the exact atom transfers depend on the bond that is broken. Water acts as both solvent and reactant, and hydrolysis reactions are often driven by removal of products or by catalytic action.

Hydrolysis can proceed by several routes. It is commonly acid- or base-catalyzed, and it is also facilitated by enzymes called hydrolases. In acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, protonation of a leaving group makes bond cleavage more favorable; in base-catalyzed hydrolysis, hydroxide acts as a nucleophile that attacks a susceptible bond. In biological systems, hydrolases such as amylases, proteases, lipases, and nucleases selectively hydrolyze carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids, respectively.

Common examples include ester hydrolysis, which yields a carboxylic acid (or carboxylate) and an alcohol; saponification is a base-catalyzed ester hydrolysis that produces carboxylate salts and alcohols. Glycosidic bond hydrolysis breaks down disaccharides and polysaccharides into monosaccharides. Peptide bond hydrolysis releases amino acids from proteins. DNA and RNA undergo hydrolysis under certain conditions as well.

Hydrolysis is central in biology (digestion and metabolism), environmental chemistry (degradation of esters and phosphates), and industry (soap production, biodiesel processing, and polymer recycling). Reaction rates depend on temperature, pH, catalysts, and the presence of water activity; while many hydrolysis reactions are rapid under catalysis, others are slow without enzymes or strong acid/base.

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