Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which a molecule is cleaved by reaction with water, incorporating one hydrogen atom and one hydroxyl group from water into the products. It is a fundamental process in chemistry, biology, and environmental science. Hydrolysis can be initiated by acid or base catalysts, and in many cases proceeds via nucleophilic attack by water on a reactive center, followed by proton transfer.

In organic chemistry, hydrolysis denotes cleavage of bonds by water. Common examples include ester hydrolysis, which yields a carboxylic acid (or its salt) and an alcohol; amide hydrolysis, which yields a carboxylic acid (or carboxylate) and an amine; and glycosidic bond hydrolysis in carbohydrates, yielding sugars and aglycones. Inorganic hydrolysis involves hydrolysis of metal salts or oxides to form metal hydroxides and corresponding acids or bases; for example, salts of weak acids react with water to produce hydroxide species.

Biological systems rely heavily on hydrolysis. Digestion uses enzymes such as proteases, lipases, and carbohydrases to cleave peptide, ester, and glycosidic bonds, respectively. ATP hydrolysis provides chemical energy, releasing adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate and driving cellular processes.

Hydrolysis reactions are also exploited industrially, notably in the hydrolysis (saponification) of fats to glycerol and fatty acids, the hydrolysis of esters in chemical synthesis, and the treatment of polymers and environmental samples to break down materials.