footnoting

Footnoting is the practice of inserting notes at the bottom of a page to provide citations, explanations, or ancillary information without interrupting the main text. A superscript numeral or symbol in the main text marks the reference; the corresponding note appears at the bottom of the page in a parallel line of text.

Notes may contain bibliographic citations, such as full or abbreviated references, or content notes that elaborate on a point, offer translations, or provide contextual information not essential to the main argument. Footnotes are distinct from endnotes, which collect all notes at the end of a chapter or document.

Historically, footnotes emerged in early modern print as a way to keep scholarly discourse tight while preserving sources. They became standard in many humanities and social sciences and evolved with different style conventions.

Different style guides govern footnotes differently. The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes numbered footnotes with full citations on first mention and short forms thereafter. MLA historically favors parenthetical references, using footnotes mostly for content notes rather than citations. APA discourages routine use of footnotes for citations, reserving them for substantive notes; when used, their content should not distract from the main narrative.

Best practices include using footnotes sparingly, ensuring notes add value, keeping entries concise, and maintaining consistency throughout the work. On the page, place notes at the bottom; on e-books and websites, notes may be hyperlinked to their markers or render as popups.