ecosystemservices

Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from natural ecosystems. They include provisioning services such as food, water, and medicines; regulating services such as climate regulation, flood control, and disease management; supporting services such as biodiversity maintenance, nutrient cycling, and soil formation; and cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual experiences.

The concept, popularized by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) and later by the TEEB initiative, frames nature as an asset contributing to human well-being. It draws attention to how ecosystem changes—from habitat loss to pollution—can affect livelihoods and economies, often in ways not captured by market prices.

Measurement and valuation combine ecological science with economics. Some services are traded in markets (timber, water), but many are non-market (pollination, flood protection, cultural enjoyment). Environmental accounting efforts seek to incorporate ecosystem services into national statistics and decision making.

Limitations include methodological challenges in attribution and aggregation, the difficulty of comparing diverse services, and ethical concerns about commodifying nature. Critics warn against reducing ecosystems to monetary value or undermining intrinsic or cultural significance.

Policy applications include ecosystem-based management, payments for ecosystem services, and nature-based solutions in climate adaptation and urban planning. Integrating ecosystem services into planning supports conservation, resilience, and sustainable development while highlighting trade-offs across sectors and time horizons.