pollination

Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred from the male reproductive organ (anther) of a flower to the female reproductive organ (stigma) of the same flower or another flower. It enables fertilization and seed production. Pollination can occur within a single plant (self-pollination) or between plants (cross-pollination). Transfer can occur via biotic agents—animals such as bees, butterflies, birds, bats, and other insects—or abiotic agents such as wind or water.

In flowering plants, pollen on a compatible stigma germinates, pollen tubes grow through the style toward ovules in the ovary, and sperm nuclei travel down the tube to fertilize the egg cell, producing a zygote that develops into a seed. In angiosperms, double fertilization leads to endosperm formation, a nutritive tissue for the developing embryo.

Pollinators and adaptions: Many flowers rely on animals; floral traits such as color, scent, nectar, and landing platforms attract specific pollinators. Wind-pollinated species often have numerous small, light pollen and inconspicuous flowers. Water-pollinated systems are less common on land and typically involve aquatic plants or specialized habitats.

Ecological and agricultural importance: Pollination underpins fruit and seed production for many crops and wild plants, supporting biodiversity and ecosystem function. Mutualistic relationships between plants and pollinators have driven coevolution of floral traits and pollinator behaviors. Threats to pollination include habitat loss, pesticide exposure, and climate change, highlighting the need for conservation and sustainable land management.