confederations

Confederations are political unions in which several sovereign states join to pursue common objectives while retaining most of their powers. The central authority exists to handle limited tasks such as defense, diplomacy, and certain trade matters, but it derives its powers from the member states and operates mainly by agreement rather than compulsion.

In a confederation, decisions typically require consent of the member states, and enforcement depends on voluntary cooperation. By contrast, a federation has a stronger central government with authority over both states and their citizens, and more direct means to implement laws.

Historical examples include the Swiss Confederation, founded as a loose alliance of cantons in the medieval period and later transformed into a federal state in the 19th century; the United States under the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789); and the Confederate States of America (1861–1865), a short-lived attempt at a more centralized national government.

Today, confederations are primarily discussed as historical or theoretical forms. Most modern unions are federations or other intergovernmental arrangements; some scholars describe certain organizations as confederal in character, though such labels are debated depending on the balance of sovereignty and central authority.