civilizaiile
Civilizaiile are large-scale human societies characterized by urban settlements, social stratification, centralized governance, economic specialization, and enduring institutional frameworks. They typically arise when agricultural surpluses support craft production, administration, and long-distance exchange. Common features include writing or record-keeping, monumental architecture, organized religion, and formal legal or political institutions.
Scholars distinguish civilizaiile from smaller-scale cultures or stateless communities by the combination of state-level organization and
Development typically results from interacting factors—environmental opportunities, technological advances, social cooperation, and political leadership—that enable surplus
Regional examples include the ancient Mesopotamian civilizations of Sumer and Akkad, the Egyptian and Nubian civilizations
In modern scholarship, civilizaiile are studied to understand long-term patterns of complexity, diffusion, and interaction. Debates