anthers

Anthers are the pollen-producing organs of flowering plants and form the male portion of the stamen, typically positioned at the tip of a filament.

In most species anthers are bilobed and contain four microsporangia, or pollen sacs, arranged in two thecae.

The wall of the anther comprises several layers: an outer epidermis, an endothecium with fibrous thickenings that aid opening, a middle layer (often degenerated during development), and a nutritive tapetum that supports pollen development.

Within the microsporangia, microsporocytes undergo meiosis to produce haploid microspores, which then develop into pollen grains. Pollen grains consist of a resistant outer exine and a more delicate inner intine, and often bear apertures that allow pollen tube emergence.

Mature anthers dehisce to release pollen by rupture along the stomium, a specialized region of the endothecium and epidermis.

Pollination involves transfer of pollen to receptive stigmas; pollen grains germinate to form a pollen tube that delivers sperm cells to the ovule, enabling fertilization and the process of double fertilization typical of angiosperms.

The study of anthers informs breeding and taxonomy, as pollen morphology and dehiscence patterns vary among species; some flowers show variations in anther arrangement and dehiscence.

In horticulture and plant breeding, anther culture and haploid production are used to generate doubled haploid lines.