alAndalus

Al-Andalus, the Arabic term for the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim rule, spans roughly 711 to 1492. At times it covered most of what is today Spain and Portugal, with Córdoba as a major political and intellectual center for centuries; Granada remained the last Muslim stronghold until 1492.

The conquest began in 711 under Tariq ibn Ziyad and was followed by the Umayyad emirate, later elevated to the Caliphate of Córdoba under Abd al-Rahman III. After the decline of central authority in the 11th century, the realm fragmented into Taifas. In the later medieval period, the Almoravids and Almohads sought to shore up Muslim rule until the Christian Reconquista prevailed.

Culturally, Al-Andalus became a crossroad of knowledge and artistry. Córdoba, Toledo, Seville, and Granada housed libraries, universities, and workshops where Arabic, Latin, and Hebrew texts were translated. The era produced notable scholars such as Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn al-Haytham. Architecturally, mosques and palaces—like the Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Alhambra—showcase sophisticated geometry, water architecture, and decorative arts. Agriculturists introduced advanced irrigation and crops, including citrus, rice, and sugar.

Today, Al-Andalus remains a key reference in discussions of medieval science, art, and convivencia—the idea of peaceful coexistence among Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Historians emphasize both achievements and conflicts in this period, whose legacy persists in Iberian culture, language, and architecture.