Utilitarism

Utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that judge actions by their consequences for overall well-being. The central claim is that morally right actions maximize net welfare, typically understood as happiness, pleasure, or preference satisfaction for all those affected.

The classical tradition begins with Jeremy Bentham, who argued that we should quantify consequences and choose the action that increases utility the most, sometimes via a hedonic calculus. John Stuart Mill refined the view by distinguishing higher and lower pleasures and by defending general rules that promote utility.

In its technical forms, act utilitarianism evaluates each act by its immediate results, while rule utilitarianism assesses rules whose long-run use tends to maximize welfare. Variants such as preference utilitarianism focus on satisfying people’s preferences rather than their pleasures.

Utilitarianism is influential in moral and political philosophy and in public policy, especially cost-benefit analysis and welfare economics.

Critics raise concerns about justice, rights, and the measurement of happiness, as well as the theory’s demandingness and potential to justify harming minorities if overall welfare improves.