Tolteca

The Tolteca were a Mesoamerican civilization that flourished in central Mexico from the 10th to the 12th centuries CE. Their capital city was Tollan-Xicocotitlan, often referred to simply as Tula, located in present-day Hidalgo. The Tolteca are considered a major influence on later Mesoamerican cultures, particularly the Aztec, who claimed Toltec ancestry and incorporated Toltec beliefs and iconography into their own civilization.

Historically, the Tolteca are often depicted as a warlike people who established a vast empire. Archaeological evidence suggests a complex society with advanced knowledge in metallurgy, stoneworking, and astronomy. Their art and architecture are characterized by distinctive motifs, including the Atlantes of Tula, monumental warrior statues, and feathered serpent imagery. The Tolteca developed a sophisticated calendar system and participated in extensive trade networks throughout Mesoamerica.

The decline of the Tolteca is not fully understood, but theories include internal strife, environmental factors, or invasions by nomadic groups. By the 12th century, Tula showed signs of abandonment, and the Toltec political influence waned. However, their cultural legacy endured, shaping the religious, political, and artistic traditions of subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations. The historical and mythological interpretations of the Tolteca have been subject to ongoing scholarly debate.