Sublimations

Sublimation refers to several processes in which a substance transitions to a higher energy state without passing through an intermediate liquid phase. In physics and chemistry, sublimation is the direct transition of a solid to a gas, occurring when the vapor pressure of the solid exceeds the surrounding pressure at a given temperature. Common examples include dry ice (solid carbon dioxide), which sublimes at room temperature, and solid iodine under standard conditions.

Purification and sample preparation: Sublimation is used to purify materials by exploiting differences in sublimation points. In practice, a mixture is heated under low pressure; the target compound sublimes, leaving non-volatile impurities behind. The vapor is then condensed elsewhere to obtain purified material. Freeze-drying is a related process in which ice sublimates under reduced pressure to preserve sensitive biological materials.

Dye-sublimation printing: Sublimation printing uses heat to transfer sublimation dyes from a solid form to gas, which then bonds with a polymer substrate, typically polyester fabrics or coated substrates. The method yields durable, full-color images but requires compatible materials and precise heat transfer conditions. It is widely used for t-shirts, mugs, and other consumer goods.

Psychological sublimation: In psychology, sublimation describes a defense mechanism proposed by Sigmund Freud in which socially unacceptable impulses are redirected into constructive or socially acceptable activities, such as artistic creation, scientific work, or physical exercise. Later theorists refined the concept; in contemporary usage, sublimation is often treated as a general term for constructive channeling of energy rather than a strictly clinical mechanism.