Springs

Springs commonly refer to two distinct concepts: mechanical springs, which store and release energy through deformation, and natural springs, where groundwater emerges at the surface. The term covers engineered devices as well as geological features that tap subsurface water.

Mechanical springs are manufactured from elastic materials, most often metals such as steel, stainless steel, or bronze. They come in several forms, including compression springs that resist axial compression, extension springs that resist pulling, and torsion springs that resist twisting. Leaf springs and Belleville (conical) washers extend the range of applications. In operation, springs generally obey Hooke's law within the elastic range: F = -k x, where k is the stiffness and x the displacement. The stored energy is (1/2) k x^2. Real springs exhibit damping and fatigue, so designers consider the elastic limit, yield strength, temperature effects, and surface fatigue.

Natural springs form when groundwater under pressure reaches the surface or escapes through openings in rock or soil. They vary in discharge from small seeps to large outlets that feed rivers. Some springs are mineral-rich, transporting dissolved salts, carbon dioxide, or hydrogen sulfide that affect water quality and taste. Springs have long been used for drinking water, irrigation, and, in some regions, bottling or spa uses; protection commonly targets recharge areas, contamination risks, and sustainable yield.

Together, engineered and natural springs illustrate the interaction of materials science, physics, and hydrogeology in everyday life.

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