Safavids

The Safavids were a major Iranian imperial dynasty that ruled Persia from 1501 to 1736. Founded by Shah Ismail I, who belonged to the Safaviyya Sufi order, the dynasty derived its name from that order. Ismail established Twelver Shi'ism as the state religion, transforming Iran's religious landscape and contributing to a distinctive Iranian identity. The Safavids united much of Iran after centuries of political fragmentation and confronted neighboring powers, especially the Ottoman Empire.

The early period saw rapid expansion and consolidation, with capital moves from Tabriz to Qazvin and then Isfahan. Shah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629) centralized authority, reduced the influence of the Qizilbash tribal elites, and built a standing army of ghulams. The empire flourished culturally and economically, and Isfahan became a major architectural and artistic center, associated with the Isfahan School. The Safavids fostered trade in silk and carpets and maintained diplomacy with European powers. The 1639 Treaty of Zuhab with the Ottomans established a durable border and reduced direct military conflict for a time.

From the late 17th century, internal weaknesses, court intrigues, and external pressure eroded royal power. In 1722–1729 Afghan forces sacked Isfahan and destabilized the realm, hastening the dynasty's decline. The Safavid state officially ended in 1736, when Nadir Shah overthrew the last Safavid claimant and founded the Afsharid dynasty. The Safavids left a lasting legacy: Shi'a Islam as Iran's state faith, and lasting contributions to Persian art, architecture, and cultural identity that shaped subsequent Iranian states.