Pharaohs

Pharaohs were the rulers of ancient Egypt, the central political and religious authority in the Nile Valley. The term pharaoh is a Greek rendering of the Egyptian per-aa, often translated as “great house” or “palace,” with the ruler later commonly identified as the living embodiment of the god-king. In law and custom, pharaohs were believed to be divine or semi-divine figures whose primary duty was to maintain ma'at, or cosmic order.

They governed a centralized administration supported by viziers, scribes, priests, and provincial governors. Their responsibilities included overseeing agriculture and irrigation, collecting taxes, enforcing law, directing diplomacy and military affairs, and ensuring the prosperity of the state. The pharaoh also presided over state religion, conducting temple rites and burial traditions, while symbolically representing the gods on earth. Beneath the king, officials managed daily affairs and regional governance.

Pharaohs ruled from the Early Dynastic Period (around 3100 BCE) until the end of the Ptolemaic Kingdom (30 BCE). Notable rulers include Narmer/Menes, Djoser, Sneferu, Khufu, Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II. In the later periods, dynastic changes and shifts in power shaped the monarchy, culminating in the Ptolemaic era; Cleopatra VII is commonly counted among the pharaohs, though she belonged to the Greek Macedonian dynasty. After her defeat, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.

Pharaohs were buried in monumental tombs and mortuary temples, with royal cults maintained by priests for centuries. The legacy of the pharaohs lies in the monumental architecture, inscriptions, and art that illuminate ancient Egyptian religion, administration, and daily life.