Observational

Observational describes methods and data derived from careful watching, measuring, and recording phenomena as they occur, without experimental manipulation. It is used across disciplines to study relationships, patterns, and processes in natural settings.

In research methodology, observational studies collect data by observing subjects in real-world conditions. They include cross-sectional studies, cohort studies, and case-control studies. They may be prospective or retrospective. Since participants are not randomly assigned to conditions, observational designs are susceptible to confounding and selection bias, and causal inferences are more limited than in randomized controlled trials. Data collection can involve surveys, interviews, behavioral coding, or archival records.

In psychology and education, observational learning refers to acquiring new behaviors by watching others, a concept central to social learning theory. It emphasizes imitation, modeling, and vicarious reinforcement and is distinguished from learning driven by direct experience.

In astronomy, observational astronomy relies on telescopes and detectors to record light and other radiation from celestial objects. It contrasts with theoretical or experimental approaches and underpins measurements of brightness, spectra, positions, classifications, and time-dependent phenomena.

The term also appears in other fields to denote methods that rely on observation rather than manipulation. Good practice emphasizes rigorous measurement, reproducibility, and attention to bias and uncertainty.