NineteenthCentury

The nineteenth century, commonly dated 1801–1900, was a period of rapid change across politics, society, science, and culture. Industrialization spread from Britain to much of Europe and North America, fostering urban growth, new social classes, and expanding global trade networks built on steam power, railways, and telegraph communications.

Political and social ideas expanded through liberalism, nationalism, and socialist thought, challenging old regimes and driving reform. The century featured waves of upheaval and reform, including the revolutions of 1848, movements toward abolition of slavery in various nations, and progressive reforms in democracies. National unifications occurred in Germany and Italy, while imperial expansion and competition among major powers intensified toward the end of the century.

In science and culture, major advances reshaped knowledge. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, advances in germ theory, electromagnetism, and chemistry transformed understanding of the natural world. Technological innovations such as the telephone, photography, electric lighting, and more efficient steam engines reshaped communication, industry, and daily life, contributing to a radical reordering of economies and societies.

Global in scope, the century saw widespread colonial expansion in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, often accompanied by resistance, reform movements, and debates over governance. Japan’s Meiji Restoration modernized the state and economy, while China faced internal and external pressures that spurred reform initiatives. The nineteenth century laid the groundwork for the political borders, scientific paradigms, and cultural currents that would define the modern era.