Morfiinia

Morfiinia, or morphine, is a potent opioid analgesic derived from opium. It is the principal active alkaloid and exerts most of its effects by activating mu-opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, producing analgesia and sedation.

Pharmacology: Morphine has limited oral bioavailability due to first-pass metabolism and is given orally or by injection. It is metabolized in the liver to morphine-3-glucuronide and morphine-6-glucuronide; the latter is pharmacologically active. It is primarily excreted in urine; the elimination half-life is about 2–3 hours, longer for active metabolites in some patients.

Uses: It is used to relieve moderate to severe acute or chronic pain, including cancer pain and perioperative analgesia. Formulations include immediate-release tablets, extended-release preparations, oral solutions, and parenteral, epidural, and intrathecal routes.

Side effects and risks: Common adverse effects are constipation, nausea, vomiting, sedation, pruritus, and respiratory depression. Tolerance, physical dependence, and risk of misuse are concerns with long-term use. Caution is advised in renal impairment; overdose is treated with naloxone.

History and regulation: Morphine was isolated from opium by Friedrich Sertürner in 1804. It became a foundational analgesic in modern medicine. Today it is a controlled substance in most jurisdictions, subject to strict prescribing, dispensing, and monitoring to prevent misuse and diversion.