Makuria

Makuria was a medieval Nubian kingdom centered along the Nile at Dongola, in what is now northern Sudan. Along with Nobatia and Alodia, it formed part of the Christian Nubian kingdoms that dominated the Nile Valley from late antiquity into the Middle Ages. Makuria emerged as a distinct political and religious entity around the 6th century, with a strong Christian identity that shaped its institutions and culture.

Its independence was maintained in part through the Baqt, a treaty with the Muslim-ruled caliphate established after the Arab conquest of Egypt. The Baqt facilitated peaceful relations, trade, and cultural exchange while allowing Makuria to preserve its Christian institutions and autonomy. The kingdom repelled several Muslim invasions in the 7th and 8th centuries, remaining a regional power for centuries.

Administratively, Makuria was centered on the capital at Dongola and supported a church hierarchy linked to the Coptic Church of Alexandria. Old Nubian was used in administration, inscriptions, and manuscripts, and the kingdom produced distinctive Christian art and architecture, including monastic communities and rock-cut churches in the Dongola Reach.

Decline began in the 12th to 13th centuries, attributed to internal strife, climate changes, and shifts in trade routes. By the 14th century, Makuria had faded as a separate political entity, with influence absorbed by the rising Funj Sultanate of Sinnar. The legacy of Makuria endures in archaeological remains at Old Dongola, in Nubian Christian monuments, and in the corpus of Old Nubian language texts.