Hudud

Hudud are fixed punishments in Islamic criminal law prescribed in the Quran and hadith. The term hadd translates to “limits” or “boundaries,” and hudud offenses are regarded as offenses against God, with penalties set by divine injunctions. Hudud are distinguished from ta’zir, discretionary penalties imposed by rulers or judges for offenses not classified as hadd.

Traditionally, classical Islamic jurisprudence identifies a core set of hudud offenses: theft, highway robbery (sabilah), unlawful sexual intercourse (zina), false accusation of zina (qadhf), and the consumption of alcohol. Some schools also consider apostasy a hudud offense; in modern practice this remains contested and varies by country. The corresponding punishments are severe and are specified in varying ways by different legal systems. Common formulations include amputation of the hand for theft under strict conditions; flogging or stoning for zina depending on the jurisdiction; eighty lashes for qadhf; flogging for alcohol; and harsher penalties for highway robbery, which may include crucifixion, limb amputation, or exile, again depending on state and doctrine.

Punishments under hudud are supposed to be applied only when strict evidentiary criteria are met, such as the value and manner of theft, the testimony of four adult witnesses to zina, or a voluntary confession. Because of these stringent standards, many states rarely apply hudud in full and instead rely on other criminal penalties or impose moratoria. In practice, enforcement varies widely across Muslim-majority countries.

Debates surrounding hudud involve human rights concerns, gender and minority rights, and the tension between traditional laws and contemporary criminal-justice norms. Proponents emphasize adherence to divine statutes, while critics point to risks of injustice, unequal treatment, and the impact of rigid punishments.