Frühneuzeit

Frühneuzeit (Early Modern Period) is a term used in German historiography to denote roughly the period from the early 16th century to the late 18th or around 1800. It marks the transition from the late medieval world to the modern era and encompasses significant regional variation across Europe, especially within the Holy Roman Empire and other parts of continental Europe.

Religious developments are among its defining features. The Protestant Reformation beginning in 1517 challenged Catholic unity and led to confessionalization, wars, and new ecclesiastical structures. The Catholic Counter-Reformation accompanied these changes. Secular authorities increasingly asserted control over church affairs and education.

Politically, the period saw the rise of centralized monarchies, standing armies, codified law, and expanding bureaucracies. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 is often cited as a turning point for sovereign states and non-interference in internal affairs. The era also witnessed global exploration and the beginnings of colonial empires, merchant capitalism, and mercantilist economic policy.

Culture and science underwent rapid transformation. The late humanist tradition persisted alongside the Renaissance, literacy and printed books spread. The Scientific Revolution, with figures such as Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton, reshaped understanding of nature and method. Universities and academies played central roles in research and education.

Historiography emphasizes that the Frühneuzeit ends with the late 18th century's upheavals—the French Revolution and the onset of modern age politics and society. End dates vary by region, with some scholars extending into the early 19th century. The period laid foundations for modern statehood, religious plurality, and global economic integration.